Far from the Holy of Holies: How did ancient Jews observe Yom Kippur 2,000 years ago?

Two millennia ago, during the Second Temple period, Jews observed Yom Kippur with fasting and unique rituals, though their practices outside Jerusalem and the Temple differed significantly from modern observances. While the High Priest performed elaborate sacrifices and entered the Holy of Holies in Jerusalem, Jews elsewhere focused on personal prayer and introspection. Professor Yair Furstenberg of Hebrew University highlights Philo of Alexandria's writings, which indicate that even less observant Jews took the day seriously, engaging in fervent prayers for forgiveness from morning till evening. However, the fixed prayers common today, like Kol Nidrei or Avinu Malkenu, had not yet been composed, and synagogues were primarily for Torah study, not organized prayer. The Dead Sea Scrolls reveal some prayers from the Qumran sect, emphasizing sorrow and weeping, contrasting with the Mishnah's portrayal of Yom Kippur as a joyous day, possibly linked to the giving of the Second Tablets or the relief following the Temple service.